Hasty entrenchments were not a special development of the Civil War. The wars of the 16th century saw many applications and developments in field works. Hasty field works affected the tactics of a number of important battles. Delbruck concluded, “From that time on(16th century), until the end of the ancient regime, field fortifications played their role, often a decisive one.” He cites the battle of Cerignola in 1503 as being the “The first truly modern battle” in part because the Spaniards had thrown up hasty entrenchment’s.1 He cites the example from the Huguenot wars of the 15th century where the general practice was to entrench the armies each night. He recounts the record of Gustavas Adolphus in the Thirty Years War who fortified every camp where he stayed more than one night.2 He also shows that by 1700 modern linear tactics were common to major European armies.3 Delbruck concluded that the trench warfare that developed in 1914-1915 was an important and new event in warfare.4 Dupuy states that the practice of hasty entrenchments in the 1688-97 war of the Augsberg league was common place.5 He does not remark on any special advance in the use of entrenchments in the civil war.
Machiavelli cited the usual practice of securing flanks by use of ditches and entrenchments to prevent being surrounded during the Italian wars of the 16th century.6
An example of field works significantly effecting operations well before the 1850’s can be taken from Wellington’s 1810-11 campaign in Portugal. Well-placed and constructed field works contributed to the defense of Wellington’s base at Lisbon. The Lines of Torres Vedras included a series of redoubts and entrenchments running some 28 miles from Lisbon between the Tagus River and the Atlantic Ocean. The lines were supported by Wellington’s field force. The French under Marshal Andre Massena were surprised by these works and found their strength daunting. After standing before the lines for five months Massena withdrew, the presence of the lines effectively defeated Massena’s strategy of forcing a British evacuation of Portugal. 7
The Civil war is not alone in claiming to foreshadow “modern trench warfare.” Royle in Crimea: The Great Crimean War writes “Life in the forward trenches was showing all the signs of conforming to modern industrialized warfare.”8
In the Crimean war at the siege of Sevastopol, the final attack against the Malakoff redoubt was the first time an attack had been coordinated by synchronized watches after a short bombardment. The attack took the defenders by surprise, many taking their mid-day meal.9
NOTES PART 3
PART 2 - TACTICS
PART 3 - ENTRENCHMENTS
PART 4 - BOER TACTICS
PART 5 - RAILROADS
PART 6 - CIVILIAN VIOLENCE
PART 7 - DRAFT
List of figures and tables
WORKS CITED
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